"...i-šam û-ta-ah-hi-id dur im-gur-dEN.LÎL dur GAL-a ša TIN.TIRki ...ar-ta-šû du-un-nu-nû âš-te-'e-e-ma" “... I sought to strengthen the defense of the wall of Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon...”
Cyrus Cylinder: 38
In the absence of any publicly known information to the contrary, it is reasonable to assume that Cyrus Cylinder was found in the ruined great wall of Babylon, or alternatively from the ruins of the Temple of E’sagila, where it was perhaps ceremonially buried by Kuruš nearly 24 centuries ago. Since the last lines of the Cyrus Cylinder inscription refer to the discovery of Aššurbanipal’s foundation tablet in the great wall of Babylon, the view favors that the Cyrus Cylinder was deposited in the foundation of Dur-Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon, during the repair of the great wall, resting next to or replacing Aššurbanipal’s foundation tablet which was deposited there many generations earlier. The Cyrus Cylinder, which in the absence of other known surviving materials to-date, can be reasonably interpreted as a close relative of the royal proclamation of Kuruš after the capture of Babylon, corroborates other contemporary accounts by the ancient Hellenes, Babylonian, and Judean writers about the fall of Babylon into the hands of the Persians.
Such ancient accounts include the Chronicle of Nabû-nâ'id, the Verse account of Nabû-nâ'id, and the Biblical accounts of Daniel, Ezra and the Second Isaiah, as well as the more colorful, somewhat historical, Histories of Herodotos, where the strong Homeric overtone of the literary account is unmistakable: As ancient Hellenes entered the fortified city of Troy, hidden in the belly of the Trojan Horse, the Persians of Herodotus enter the fortified city of Babylon under the cover of darkness, after diverting the course of Euphrates River, that runs through Babylon, while Babylonians are enjoying themselves in a drunken festival. Literary similarities end, where Hellenes sacked and burned Troy and slaughtered the Trojans, while the Persians enter and restore the order to Babylon without shedding blood.
As already mentioned, in 1880s, the knowledge of the Akkadian language was less than two decades old and the transliteration and translation of Cyrus Cylinder, first published in 1880, has gone through a number of revisions as the inflective language of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians has become better known to scholars and philologists.
The English translation of Cyrus Cylinder in 2006 by Piotr Michalowski, based on the translation and transliteration of the original Akkadian text by the Assyriologist Hanspeter Schaudig in Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen, is provided on the website of the British Museum, along with a short physical description and the current view of the museum about the historical value of the inscription.
Here are the translations of a few sample lines by various scholars, pointing out to variations in available translations. The transliteration is from the original Akkadian text by the Hanspeter Schaudig:
Lines
Transliteration of Akkadian H. Schaudig 2001
H. C. Rawlinson 1909
R. W. Rogers 1926
P. Michalowski 2006
1-8
[î-nu ...]... -ni-šu
[... ki-i]b-ra-a-tî
... GAL ma-tu-û iš-šak-na a-na e-nu-tu ma-ti-šû ...
û? ...-ši-li û-ša-âš-ki-na se-ru-šu-un
ta-am-ši-li Ê-SAG-ÎL i-te-[pu-uš-ma ... t]î a-na ÛRIki û si-it-ta-a-tî ma-ha-za
pa-ra-as la si-ma-a-ti-šu-nu ta-[ak-li-im la-me-si ... la] pa-lih u-mi-šâ-am-ma id-de-nê-eb-bu-ub û ana ma-ag-ri-tî
... [r]ims (of the world)... a weakling has been installed as the enû of his country; [the correct images of the gods he removed from their thrones, imi]tations he ordered to place upon them. A replica of the temple Esagila he has… for Ur and the other sacred cities inappropriate rituals… daily he did blabber [incorrect prayers]. He (furthermore) interrupted in a fiendish way the regular offerings, he did… he established within the sacred cities. The worship of Marduk, the king of the gods, he [chang]ed into abomination, daily he used to do evil against his (i.e. Marduk’s) city... He [tormented] its [inhabitant]s with corvée-work (lit.: a yoke) without relief, he ruined them all.
... his troops
... [four] quarters of the world
... a weakling was established as ruler over the land.
and ... a similar one he appointed over them,
like Essagila he made... to Ur and the rest of the cities,
a command dishonoring them... he planned daily and in enmity,
he caused the daily offerings to cease; he appointed... he established within the city. The worship of Marduk, king of the gods...
He showed hostility toward his city daily... his people he brought all of them to ruin through servitude without rest.
[when...] his... [...] the regions..., an insignificant (candidate) was installed as high priestess (of the Moon) in his land, and [...] he imposed upon them. He made a replica of the Esaggil, [... established] improper rites for Ur and the remaining cult centres as well as [unclean offer]ings; daily he continuously uttered unfaithful (prayers); furthermore he maliciously suspended the regular offerings and upset the rites. He plotted to end the worship of Marduk and continuously perpetuated evil against his city. Daily [he... ] brought all his [people] to ruin by (imposing) toils without rest.
20-22
a-na-ku mKu-ra-âš LUGAL kiš-šat LUGAL GAL LUGAL dan-nu LUGAL TIN.TIRki LUGAL KUR šu-me-ri û ak-ka-di-i LUGAL kib-ra-a-ti er-bê-et-tî
DUMU mKa-am-bu-zi-ia LUGAL GAL LUGAL URU an-ša-an DUMU DUMU mKu-ra-áš LUGAL GAL LUGA[L U]RU an-ša-an ŠÂ.BAL.BAL mši-iš-pi-iš LUGAL GAL LUGAL URU an-ša-an NUMUN da-ru-û ša LUGAL-û-tu ša dEN u dNÀ ir-a-mu pa-la-a-šu a-na tu-ub ŠÂ-bi-šû-nu ih-ši-ha L[UGA]L-ut-su e-nu-ma a-n[a q]ê-reb TIN.TIRki e-ru-bu sa-li-mi-iš
I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims (of the earth), son of Cambyses (Ka-am-nu-zi-ia), great king, king of Anshan, grandson of Teispes (Ši-iš-pi-iš), great king, king of Anshan, of a family (which) always (exercised) kingship; whose rule Bel and Nebo love, whom they want as king to please their hearts.
I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world,
son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, king of the city of Anshan; great-grandson of Teïspes, the great king, king of the city of Anshan;
eternal seed of royalty whose rule Bel and Nabu love, whose government they rejoice in their heart. When I made my triumphal entrance into Babylon,
I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of the lands of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the universe, son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, from an ancient royal lineage, whose reign is beloved by (the gods) Marduk and Nabu, whose kingship they desired to make them glad.
I returned to these (sacred) cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their inhabitation.
The gods, who dwelt in them, I brought back to their places, and caused them to dwell in a habitation for all time. All the inhabitants I collected and restored them to their dwelling places.
I returned to these sanctuaries on the other side of the Tigris, sanctuaries founded in ancient times, the images that had been in them there and I made their dwellings permanent. I also gathered all their people and returned to them their habitations.
There is no standard agreed upon transliteration and translation of the Cyrus Cylinder to-date and probably not likely for some times; scholars are still divided between the use of B.C., Before Christ, and B.C.E., before common era.
So, newer transliterations, translations and interpretations are likely to come forth, with or without the discovery of new ancient source materials.
However, it is generally agreed by the specialists that the 45 lines of the Cyrus Cylinder, broken in places, faded with missing lines, are topically divided as follows:
Fragment A:
Lines 1-3
... missing or unintelligible
Lines 4-8
The Babylonian King Nabû-nâ’id (Nabonidus) establishes the worship of Sîn (Nânna), the Moon-god, in Babylon, in a new temple, with new rites, preventing the proper worship of Bêl Marduk, the patron great god of Babylon. Thus angering the Babylonians who cry out to Bêl Marduk for relief.
Lines 9-10
Bêl Marduk is angered when he hears the cries of the Babylonians.
Lines 11-14
Bêl Marduk searches all the lands to find a righteous king for Babylon, and finds Ku-ra-aš [Cyrus], the King of Anšan, calls him by name and gives him lordship over the world.
Lines 15-19
Bêl Marduk orders Kuruš to go to Babylon, helps him to take the city without battle and capture Nabû-nâ’id, and makes him the king of the black-headed people, the Babylonians, who rejoice in the kingship of Kuruš.
Lines 20-22
Kuruš speaks with his own words, declaring his name, title and lineages, and acknowledges the divine sovereignty of Bêl Marduk and his divine son, Nabû in granting him the kingship over Babylon.
Lines 23-24
Kuruš marches into Babylon in peace and honors Bêl Marduk daily.
Lines 25-27
Kuruš declares his love for Babylon and all the Babylonians who were forced into work by Nabû-nâ’id, not befitting them, are freed from forced impious labor.
Lines 28-33
All the kings and rulers from near and far come to acknowledge Kuruš’ kingship and bring tribute. All the great gods who had been brought to Babylon by Nabû-nâ’id are retuned to their own temples.
Lines 34-35
Kuruš prays that all the great gods who have been returned to their own temples ask Bêl Marduk and Nabû for blessings for himself and his son Kambujiya.
Line 36 from fragment A continuing on Fragment B
Kuruš declares that he imposes peace on all the lands.
Fragment B
Lines 37-43
Kuruš increases the food offerings to Bêl Marduk’s temple. Kuruš repairs buildings, walls and door.
Line 43
Kuruš sees an old inscription from Aššurpanipal in Dur-Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon.
Line 44
... 2 lines missing
Line 45
... for eternity.
So, the Cyrus Cylinder starts by establishing how the previous Babylonian king has offended the great patron god of Babylon, who in turn looks for a righteous replacement and finds Kuruš, whom with the help of the great god is victorious (lines 1-19). Then Kuruš himself presents his claim to kingship of Babylon, and the world, as a king from a long line of kings who worships the great god of Babylon (lines 22-22) and acts as a proper Babylonian king, piously returning all other great gods to their temples and all the captive people to their lands, and starts to rebuild Babylon, whose previous king has ignored (lines 23-34, and 37-45). Kuruš prays for himself and his son and heir (lines 34-35). Lands are at peace again (line 36). Kuruš sees a clay foundation tablet of Aššurbanipal... All is well that ends well, so to speak.
The latest English translation of Cyrus Cylinder [2009] by Dr. Irving Finkel, who is the British Museum’s curator in charge of cuneiform inscriptions on clay tablets from ancient Mesopotamia, is provided on the website of the British Museum. A short physical description [length 22.5 cm, roughly 9 inches] and the current view of the British Museum about the historical value of Cyrus Cylinder are also provided. From British Museum Website:
[When...] ... [... wor]ld quarters [...] ... a low person was put in charge of his country, but he set [a (...) counter]feit over them. He ma[de] a counterfeit of Esagil [and ...] ... for Ur and the rest of the cult-cities. Rites inappropriate to them, [impure] fo[od- offerings ...] [dis]respectful [...]were daily gabbled, and, intolerably, he brought the daily offerings to a halt; he inter[fered with the rites and] instituted [...] within the sanctuaries. In his mind, reverential fear of Marduk, king of the gods, ca[me to an e]nd. He did yet more evil to his city every day; … his [people...], he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief. Enlil-of-the-gods became extremely angry at their complaints, and [...] their territory. The gods who lived within them left their shrines, angry that he had made them enter into Babylon (Shuanna). Ex[alted Marduk, Enlil-of-the-Go]ds, relented. He changed his mind about all the settlements whose sanctuaries were in ruins and the population of the land of Sumer and Akkad who had become like corpses, and took pity on them. He inspected and checked all the countries, seeking for the upright king of his choice. He took under his hand Cyrus, king of the city of Anshan, and called him by his name, proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything. He made the land of the Qutu and all the Medean troops prostrate themselves at his feet, while he looked out in justice and righteousness for the black-headed people whom he had put under his care. Marduk, the great lord, who nurtures his people, saw with pleasure his fine deeds and true heart and ordered that he should go to his city, Babylon. He had him take the road to Tintir, and, like a friend and companion, he walked at his side. His vast troops whose number, like the water in a river, could not be counted, marched fully-armed at his side. He had him enter without fighting or battle right into Shuanna; he saved his city Babylon from hardship. He handed over to him Nabonidus, the king who did not fear him. All the people of Tintir, of all Sumer and Akkad, nobles and governors, bowed down before him and kissed his feet, rejoicing over his kingship and their faces shone. The lord through whose trust all were rescued from death and who saved them all from distress and hardship, they blessed him sweetly and praised his name.
I am Cyrus, king of the universe, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, ki[ng of the ci]ty of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, the great king, king of Anshan, the perpetual seed of kingship, whose reign Bel and Nabu love, and with whose kingship, to their joy, they concern themselves.
When I went as harbinger of peace i[nt]o Babylon I founded my sovereign residence within the royal palace amid celebration and rejoicing. Marduk, the great lord, bestowed on me as my destiny the great magnanimity of one who loves Babylon, and I every day sought him out in awe. My vast troops marched peaceably in Babylon, and the whole of [Sumer] and Akkad had nothing to fear. I sought the welfare of the city of Babylon and all its sanctuaries. As for the population of Babylon [..., w]ho as if without div[ine intention] had endured a yoke not decreed for them, I soothed their weariness, I freed them from their bonds(?). Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced at [my good] deeds, and he pronounced a sweet blessing over me, Cyrus, the king who fears him, and over Cambyses, the son [my] issue, [and over] my all my troops, that we might proceed further at his exalted [command]. All kings who sit on thrones, from every quarter, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, those who inhabit [remote distric]ts (and) the kings of the land of Amurru who live in tents, all of them, brought their weighty tribute into Shuanna, and kissed my feet. From [Shuanna] I sent back to their places to the city of Ashur and Susa, Akkad, the land of Eshnunna, the city of Zamban, the city of Meturnu, Der, as far as the border of the land of Qutu - the sanctuaries across the river Tigris - whose shrines had earlier become dilapidated, the gods who lived therein, and made permanent sanctuaries for them. I collected together all of their people and returned them to their settlements, and the gods of the land of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus – to the fury of the lord of the gods – had brought into Shuanna, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I returned them unharmed to their cells, in the sanctuaries that make them happy. May all the gods that I returned to their sanctuaries, every day before Marduk and Nabu, ask for a long life for me, and mention my good deeds, and say to Marduk, my lord, this: "Cyrus, the king who fears you, and Cambyses his son, may their ... [...] [... ...]." The population of Babylon call blessings on my kingship, and I have enabled all the lands to live in peace. Every day I copiously supplied [... ge]ese, two ducks and ten pigeons more than the geese, ducks and pigeons [...]. I sought out to strengthen the guard on the wall Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon, and [...] the quay of baked brick on the bank of the moat which an earlier king had bu[ilt but not com]pleted, [I ...] its work. [... which did not surround the city] outside, which no earlier king had built, his troops, the levee from [his land, in/to] Shuanna. [... with bitume]n and baked brick I built anew, and [completed its wor]k. [...] great [doors of cedarwood] with copper cladding. [I installed all] their doors, threshold sla[bs and door fittings with copper par]ts. [...] I s[aw within it] an inscription of Ashurbanipal, a king who preceded me, [...] ... [...] ... [... for] ever.
So, what does it all mean?
Is Cyrus Cylinder an elaborate piece of Persian political propaganda after the fall of Babylon, or is it just that: a clay foundation tablet, written by Babylonian scribes who with the knowledge of previous Assyrian and Babylonian kings produced a typical royal monument that has miraculously survived the ravages of time?
Well, yes, yes and who knows? Yes, it is a clay foundation tablet; yes, it is written in typical Babylonian formulae.
But who knows?
Ancient records must be evaluated and interpreted within an appropriate and relevant cultural and theological context. Moreover, the importance of the strong oral traditions of the ancient Persians and Babylonians cannot be underestimated.
As Thomas Young, one of the scholars working on deciphering the Rosetta Stone, appropriately said in frustration:
“The key is turned in the lock, but the door can never be opened,”
recognizing that the path to deciphering ancient texts and understanding ancient cultures is not easy and clear-cut. The ability to transliterate and translate does not necessary lead to a meaningful interpretation.
Knowledge does not necessarily lead to insight.
And absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.
While Cyrus Cylinder is written in Akkadian according Babylonian formulae, there is simply no way of knowing ‘what’ the King had intended to communicate with this inscription. Those who are familiar with Babylonian corpus of documents know well that Babylonian scribes wrote documents based on formulae that they had memorized since childhood or had learned as court or temple scribes. It is possible that the Akkadian language of the Babylonians could not simply render the concepts of the Persian religion at the beginning of the Persian authority in Babylon and the proper shorthand signs were developed later.
As noted by Professor Stolper in Forgotten Empire, the Akkadian of the imperial Achaemenid inscriptions is not quite the language of Babylonian royal inscription, literature and scholarship and has many peculiarities of form, syntax, vocabulary and style.Even Cyrus Cylinder, written by Babylonian scribes in Akkadian following Babylonian models contains grammatical anomalies.
So it is likely that an account of the ‘good deeds’ of the new king was rendered in proper Babylonian format by Babylonian scribes who probably had no idea how else to ‘write down’ the new king’s royal words, even with the best of intentions.
The cuneiform language of Âryâ [Old Persian meaning Iranian] was a royal language that belonged to the Indo-European family of languages, believed to have been invented by the imperial Achaemenids to express their political views. Scholars believe that Âryâ was an artificial language that was not spoken but written and drew from several Iranian dialects. While often credited to the Great Dâriuš , without any definite evidence, it is likely that the invention of the new language dated back Kuruš, when he realized that the Akkadian language, a Semitic language, was inadequate in articulating Persian political and theological concepts; an act that benefited Dâriuš later.
5 known logograms of Âryâ are: Ahuramazdâ, God, King, Earth and Country.
Later Achaemenid royal inscriptions of Dâriuš I, the Great, in Âryâ were declarations of the timeless order of the world created by Ahuramazdâ, who created the Persian kings to maintain this order.
Finally, a more meaningful interpretation will rest on a better understanding of Mazdaism (Zoroastrianism), the religion of Kuruš and the Persian Achaemenids, who believed in:
“Man follows his own moral convictions and earns his own heaven and hell by his own good and evil deeds.”
